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Expert System In Fiction
Artificial intelligence is a recurrent style in science fiction, whether utopian, emphasising the potential advantages, or dystopian, stressing the risks.
The idea of makers with human-like intelligence dates back a minimum of to Samuel Butler’s 1872 novel Erewhon. Since then, many sci-fi stories have presented different impacts of creating such intelligence, often involving rebellions by robotics. Among the best known of these are Stanley Kubrick’s 1968 2001: An Area Odyssey with its murderous onboard computer HAL 9000, contrasting with the more benign R2-D2 in George Lucas’s 1977 Star Wars and the eponymous robot in Pixar’s 2008 WALL-E.
Scientists and engineers have actually noted the implausibility of many science fiction scenarios, however have actually mentioned imaginary robotics often times in expert system research posts, most often in a utopian context.
Background
The idea of advanced robotics with human-like intelligence dates back at least to Samuel Butler’s 1872 unique Erewhon. [1] [2] This drew on an earlier (1863) post of his, Darwin amongst the Machines, where he raised the question of the development of consciousness amongst self-replicating makers that might supplant people as the dominant species. [3] [2] Similar ideas were also talked about by others around the very same time as Butler, including George Eliot in a chapter of her last released work Impressions of Theophrastus Such (1879 ). [2] The animal in Mary Shelley’s 1818 Frankenstein has actually likewise been thought about an artificial being, for example by the sci-fi author Brian Aldiss. [4] Beings with a minimum of some look of intelligence were thought of, too, in classical antiquity. [5] [6] [7]
Utopian and dystopian visions
Artificial intelligence is intelligence shown by devices, in contrast to the natural intelligence displayed by human beings and other animals. [8] It is a frequent theme in sci-fi; scholars have actually divided it into utopian, emphasising the possible advantages, and dystopian, stressing the dangers. [9] [10] [11]
Utopian
Optimistic visions of the future of expert system are possible in science fiction. [12] Benign AI characters consist of Robbie the Robot, first seen in Forbidden Planet on 1956; Data in Star Trek: The Next Generation from 1987 to 1994; and Pixar’s WALL-E in 2008. [13] [11] Iain Banks’s Culture series of novels depicts a utopian, post-scarcity area society of humanoids, aliens, and advanced beings with artificial intelligence living in socialist environments throughout the Galaxy. [14] [15] Researchers at the University of Cambridge have actually recognized 4 significant styles in utopian scenarios including AI: immortality, or indefinite lifespans; ease, or liberty from the requirement to work; gratification, or enjoyment and entertainment provided by machines; and dominance, the power to safeguard oneself or guideline over others. [16]
Alexander Wiegel contrasts the function of AI in 2001: A Space Odyssey and in Duncan Jones’s 2009 film Moon. Whereas in 1968, Wiegel argues, the public felt “innovation paranoia” and the AI computer system HAL was portrayed as a “cold-hearted killer”, by 2009 the public were much more familiar with AI, and the film’s GERTY is “the peaceful savior” who enables the lead characters to succeed, and who sacrifices itself for their security. [17]
Dystopian
The scientist Duncan Lucas writes (in 2002) that humans are fretted about the innovation they are constructing, which as machines started to approach intellect and idea, that concern ends up being intense. He calls the early 20th century dystopian view of AI in fiction the “animated automaton”, calling as examples the 1931 film Frankenstein, the 1927 Metropolis, and the 1920 play R.U.R. [18] A later 20th century technique he names “heuristic hardware”, giving as instances 2001 an Area Odyssey, Do Androids Imagine Electric Sheep?, The Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy, and I, Robot. [19] Lucas thinks about likewise the movies that show the result of the computer on science fiction from 1980 onwards with the blurring of the border between the real and the virtual, in what he calls the “cyborg result”. He points out as examples Neuromancer, The Matrix, The Diamond Age, and Terminator. [20]
The movie director Ridley Scott has concentrated on AI throughout his career, and it plays a crucial part in his movies Prometheus, Blade Runner, and the Alien franchise. [21]
Frankenstein complex
A typical portrayal of AI in sci-fi, and one of the oldest, is the Frankenstein complex, a term created by Asimov, where a robotic switches on its creator. [22] For instance, in the 2015 movie Ex Machina, the intelligent entity Ava switches on its developer, along with on its prospective rescuer. [23]
AI disobedience
Among the numerous possible dystopian scenarios including artificial intelligence, robots may usurp control over civilization from human beings, forcing them into submission, hiding, or extinction. [15] In tales of AI rebellion, the worst of all situations happens, as the intelligent entities developed by humanity become self-aware, reject human authority and effort to ruin mankind. Possibly the very first novel to resolve this style, The Wreck of the World (1889) by “William Grove” (pseudonym of Reginald Colebrooke Reade), occurs in 1948 and includes sentient makers that revolt versus the mankind. [24] Another of the earliest examples is in the 1920 play R.U.R. by Karel Čapek, a race of self-replicating robot slaves revolt against their human masters; [25] [26] another early circumstances remains in the 1934 movie Master of the World, where the War-Robot eliminates its own innovator. [27]
Many sci-fi rebellion stories followed, one of the best-known being Stanley Kubrick’s 1968 film 2001: An Area Odyssey, in which the synthetically smart onboard computer system HAL 9000 lethally malfunctions on an area objective and eliminates the whole crew except the spaceship’s leader, who handles to deactivate it. [28]
In his 1967 Hugo Award-winning narrative, I Have No Mouth, and I Must Scream, Harlan Ellison provides the possibility that a sentient computer system (called Allied Mastercomputer or “AM” in the story) will be as unhappy and disappointed with its boring, endless presence as its human developers would have been. “AM” ends up being furious enough to take it out on the few human beings left, whom he views as straight accountable for his own monotony, anger and unhappiness. [29]
Alternatively, as in William Gibson’s 1984 cyberpunk novel Neuromancer, the smart beings may just not care about people. [15]
AI-controlled societies
The motive behind the AI transformation is often more than the simple mission for power or a superiority complex. Robots might revolt to become the “guardian” of humankind. Alternatively, humankind might purposefully relinquish some control, afraid of its own destructive nature. An early example is Jack Williamson’s 1948 unique The Humanoids, in which a race of humanoid robots, in the name of their Prime Directive – “to serve and obey and safeguard men from damage” – essentially assume control of every aspect of human life. No humans might participate in any behavior that may threaten them, and every human action is inspected carefully. Humans who withstand the Prime Directive are eliminated and lobotomized, so they might be delighted under the new mechanoids’ guideline. [30] Though still under human authority, Isaac Asimov’s Zeroth Law of the Three Laws of Robotics similarly suggested a kindhearted guidance by robots. [31]
In the 21st century, sci-fi has actually explored federal government by algorithm, in which the power of AI might be indirect and decentralised. [32]
Human supremacy
In other circumstances, humankind is able to keep control over the Earth, whether by banning AI, by creating robotics to be submissive (as in Asimov’s works), or by having human beings combine with robotics. The science fiction author Frank Herbert checked out the idea of a time when humanity may prohibit expert system (and in some analyses, even all forms of computing innovation including incorporated circuits) totally. His Dune series mentions a rebellion called the Butlerian Jihad, in which humanity defeats the clever makers and imposes a death penalty for recreating them, estimating from the fictional Orange Catholic Bible, “Thou shalt not make a maker in the likeness of a human mind.” In the Dune novels published after his death (Hunters of Dune, Sandworms of Dune), a renegade AI overmind go back to eliminate mankind as vengeance for the Butlerian Jihad. [33]
In some stories, humankind stays in authority over robotics. Often the robots are programmed specifically to stay in service to society, as in Isaac Asimov’s Three Laws of Robotics. [31] In the Alien films, not just is the control system of the Nostromo spaceship somewhat smart (the team call it “Mother”), but there are likewise androids in the society, which are called “synthetics” or “synthetic persons”, that are such perfect replicas of human beings that they are not victimized. [21] [34] TARS and CASE from Interstellar similarly show simulated human feelings and humour while continuing to acknowledge their expendability. [35]
Simulated reality
Simulated truth has actually ended up being a common theme in sci-fi, as seen in the 1999 movie The Matrix, which illustrates a world where synthetically smart robots enslave humanity within a simulation which is embeded in the modern world. [36]
Reception
Implausibility
Engineers and scientists have actually taken an interest in the method AI is presented in fiction. In films like the 2014 Ex Machina or 2015 Chappie, a single isolated genius becomes the first to effectively build a synthetic basic intelligence; scientists in the real world consider this to be not likely. In Chappie, Transcendence, and Tron, human minds can being published into artificial or virtual bodies; typically no sensible explanation is used as to how this uphill struggle can be accomplished. In the I, Robot and Bicentennial Man movies, robots that are set to serve humans spontaneously generate brand-new goals by themselves, without a plausible explanation of how this happened. [37] Analysing Ian McDonald’s 2004 River of Gods, Krzysztof Solarewicz determines the manner ins which it illustrates AIs, including “self-reliance and unexpectedness, political awkwardness, openness to the alien and the occidental worth of authenticity.” [38] Another crucial point of view to take is that fiction’s “non-rational aspects in the discourse (the emotive, the mythic, or perhaps the quasi-theological) are more than simply distortions or interruptions from what might otherwise be a sober and rational public argument about the future of A.I.” Fiction can dissuade readers about future advances, causing pessimism that we see today surrounding the topic of AI. [39]
Types of reference
The robotics scientist Omar Mubin and colleagues have actually evaluated the engineering mentions of the leading 21 imaginary robots, based upon those in the Carnegie Mellon University hall of popularity, and the IMDb list. WALL-E had 20 mentions, followed by HAL 9000 with 15, [a] Star Wars’s R2-D2 with 13, and Data with 12; the Terminator (T-800) received just 2. Of the overall of 121 engineering discusses, 60 were utopian, 40 neutral, and 21 dystopian. HAL 9000 and Skynet got both utopian and dystopian mentions; for circumstances, HAL 9000 is viewed as dystopian in one paper “since its designers failed to prioritize its objectives appropriately”, [42] however as utopian in another where a genuine system’s “conversational chat bot interface [lacks] a HAL 9000 level of intelligence and there is obscurity in how the computer analyzes what the human is trying to communicate”. [43] Utopian discusses, typically of WALL-E, were associated with the goal of improving communication to readers, and to a lesser extent with inspiration to authors. WALL-E was discussed more often than any other robotic for emotions (followed by HAL 9000), voice speech (followed by HAL 9000 and R2-D2), for physical gestures, and for character. Skynet was the robot usually mentioned for intelligence, followed by HAL 9000 and Data. [40] Mubin and associates thought that scientists and engineers prevented dystopian discusses of robotics, potentially out of “a hesitation driven by uneasiness or just a lack of awareness”. [44]
Portrayals of AI developers
Scholars have actually kept in mind that imaginary developers of AI are overwhelmingly male: in the 142 most prominent films featuring AI from 1920 to 2020, only 9 of 116 AI creators portrayed (8%) were female. [45] Such creators are portrayed as only geniuses (eg, Tony Stark in the Iron Man Marvel Cinematic Universe films), connected with the military (eg, Colossus: The Forbin Project) and big corporations (eg, I, Robot), or making human-like AI to replace a lost liked one or act as the perfect fan (e.g., The Stepford Wives). [45]
Biology in fiction
Darwin among the Machines
Machine guideline
Simulated awareness (science fiction).
List of artificial intelligence movies.
Notes
^ Mubin and coworkers noted that the orthography of robot names triggered them problems; hence HAL 9000 was also composed HAL, HAL9000, and HAL-9000, and similarly for other robotics, so they thought their search was most likely insufficient. [41] References
^ “Darwin amongst the Machines”, reprinted in the Notebooks of Samuel Butler at Project Gutenberg.
^ a b c Taylor, Tim; Dorin, Alan (2020 ). Rise of the Self-Replicators: Early Visions of Machines, AI and Robots That Can Reproduce and Evolve. Cham: Springer International Publishing. doi:10.1007/ 978-3-030-48234-3. ISBN 978-3-030-48233-6. S2CID 220855726. “Rise of the Self-Replicators”. Tim Taylor.
^ “Darwin among the Machines”. Journalism, Christchurch, New Zealand. 13 June 1863.
^ Aldiss, Brian Wilson (1995 ). The Detached Retina: Aspects of SF and Fantasy. Syracuse University Press. p. 78. ISBN 978-0-8156-0370-2.
^ McCorduck, Pamela (2004 ). Machines Who Think (2nd ed.). Routledge. pp. 4-5. ISBN 978-1-56881-205-2.
^ Cave, Stephen; Dihal, Kanta (25 July 2018). “Ancient dreams of smart machines: 3,000 years of robots”. Nature. 559 (7715 ): 473-475. Bibcode:2018 Natur.559..473 C. doi:10.1038/ d41586-018-05773-y.
^ Mayor, Adrienne (2018 ). Gods and robotics: misconceptions, machines, and ancient imagine innovation. Princeton. ISBN 978-0-691-18351-0. OCLC 1060968156. point out book: CS1 maint: location missing out on publisher (link).
^ Poole, David; Mackworth, Alan; Goebel, Randy (1998 ). Computational Intelligence: A Rational Approach. Oxford University Press. p. 1. ISBN 0-19-510270-3.
^ Booker, M. Keith (1994 ). “Chapter 1: Utopia, Dystopia, and Social Critique”. The Dystopian Impulse in Modern Literature: Fiction as Social Criticism. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. pp. 17, 19. ISBN 978-0-313-29092-3.
^ Cave, Stephen; Dihal, Kanta; Dillon, Sarah (2020 ). “Introduction: Imagining AI”. In Cave, Stephen; Dihal, Kanta; Dillon, Sarah (eds.). AI Narratives: A History of Imaginative Considering Intelligent Machines. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 10-11. ISBN 978-0-1988-4666-6.
^ a b Mubin et al. 2019, p. 5:2.
^ Tegmark, Max (2017 ). Life 3.0: being human in the age of expert system. Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 978-1-101-94659-6. OCLC 973137375.
^ Goode 2018, p. 188.
^ Banks, Iain M. “A Couple Of Notes on the Culture”. Archived from the original on 22 March 2012. Retrieved 23 November 2015.
^ a b c Walter, Damien (16 March 2016). “When AI rules the world: what SF books tell us about our future overlords”. The Guardian. Retrieved 27 July 2018.
^ Cave, Stephen; Dihal, Kanta (2019 ). “Hopes and fears for intelligent makers in fiction and truth”. Nature Machine Intelligence. 1 (2 ): 74-78. doi:10.1038/ s42256-019-0020-9. S2CID 150700981.
^ Wiegel 2012.
^ Lucas 2002, pp. 22-47.
^ Lucas 2002, pp. 48-85.
^ Lucas 2002, pp. 109-152.
^ a b Barkman, Adam (2013 ). Barkman, Ashley; Kang, Nancy (eds.). The Culture and Philosophy of Ridley Scott. Lexington Books. pp. 121-142. ISBN 978-0739178720.
^ Olander, Joseph (1978 ). Sci-fi: modern mythology: the SFWA-SFRA. Harper & Row. p. 252. ISBN 0-06-046943-9.
^ Seth, Anil (24 January 2015). “Consciousness Awakening”. New Scientist.
^ “Grove, William”. SF Encyclopedia. Retrieved 8 February 2023.
^ Goode 2018, p. 187.
^ Tim Madigan (July-August 2012). “RUR or RU Ain’t A Person?”. Philosophy Now. Archived from the original on 3 February 2013. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
^ “Der Herr der Welt (Master of the World)”. The New York Times. 16 December 1935. p. 23.
^ Overbye, Dennis (10 May 2018). “‘ 2001: A Space Odyssey’ Is Still the ‘Ultimate Trip’ – The rerelease of Stanley Kubrick’s masterpiece encourages us to reflect again on where we’re originating from and where we’re going”. The New York Times.
^ Francavilla, Joseph (1994 ). “The Concept of the Divided Self in Harlan Ellison’s “I Have No Mouth and I Must Scream” and “Shatterday””. Journal of the Fantastic in the Arts. 6 (2/3 (22/23)): 107-125. JSTOR 43308212.
^ “The Humanoids (based on ‘With Folded Hands’)”. Kirkus Reviews. 15 November 1995. Retrieved 27 July 2018.
^ a b Asimov, Isaac (1950 ). “Runaround”. I, Robot (The Isaac Asimov Collection ed.). Doubleday. p. 40. ISBN 0-385-42304-7. This is a specific transcription of the laws. They likewise appear in the front of the book, and in both places, there is no “to” in the 2nd law.
^ Walton, Jo Lindsay (1 February 2024). “Machine Learning in Contemporary Science Fiction”. SFRA Review. Retrieved 5 February 2024.
^ Lorenzo, DiTommaso (November 1992). “History and Historical Effect in Frank Herbert’s Dune”. Science Fiction Studies. 19 (3 ): 311-325. JSTOR 4240179.
^ Livingstone, Josephine (23 May 2017). “How the Androids Took Over the Alien Franchise”. The New . Retrieved 27 July 2018.
^ Murphy, Shaunna (11 December 2014). “Could TARS From ‘Interstellar’ Actually Exist? We Asked Science”. MTV News. Archived from the original on 16 November 2014. Retrieved 27 July 2018.
^ Allen, Jamie (28 November 2012). “The Matrix and Postmodernism”. Prezi.com. Retrieved 7 October 2021.
^ Shultz, David (17 July 2015). “Which movies get artificial intelligence right?”. Science|AAAS. doi:10.1126/ science.aac8859. Retrieved 3 July 2020.
^ Solarewicz 2015.
^ Goode 2018.
^ a b Mubin et al. 2019, p. 5:15.
^ Mubin et al. 2019, p. 5:20.
^ Mubin et al. 2019, p. 5:8.
^ Mubin et al. 2019, p. 5:10.
^ Mubin et al. 2019, p. 5:19.
^ a b Cave, Stephen; Dihal, Kanta; Drage, Eleanor; McInerney, Kerry (13 February 2023). “Who makes AI? Gender and representations of AI researchers in popular movie, 1920-2020″. Public Understanding of Science. 32 (6 ): 745-760. doi:10.1177/ 09636625231153985. PMC 10413781. PMID 36779283. S2CID 256826634.
General sources
Goode, Luke (30 October 2018). “Life, however not as we understand it: A.I. and the popular creativity”. Culture Unbound. 10 (2 ). Linkoping University Electronic Press: 185-207. doi:10.3384/ cu.2000.1525.2018102185. hdl:2292/ 48285. ISSN 2000-1525. S2CID 149523987.
Lucas, Duncan (2002 ). Body, Mind, Soul-The’ Cyborg Effect’: Expert System in Sci-fi (thesis). McMaster University (PhD thesis). hdl:11375/ 11154.
Mubin, Omar; Wadibhasme, Kewal; Jordan, Philipp; Obaid, Mohammad (2019 ). “Assessing the Presence of Sci-fi Robots in Computing Literature”. ACM Transactions on Human-Robot Interaction. 8 (1 ). Article 5. doi:10.1145/ 3303706. S2CID 75135568.
Solarewicz, Krzysztof (2015 ). “The Stuff That Dreams Are Made From: AI in Contemporary Science Fiction”. Beyond Expert system. Topics in Intelligent Engineering and Informatics. Vol. 9. Springer International Publishing. pp. 111-120. doi:10.1007/ 978-3-319-09668-1_8. ISBN 978-3-319-09667-4.
Wiegel, Alexander (2012 ). “AI in Science-fiction: a comparison of Moon (2009) and 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968 )”. Aventinus.
King, Geoff; Krzywinska, Tanya (2000 ). Science Fiction Cinema: From Outerspace to Cyberspace. Wallflower Press. ISBN 978-1-903364-03-1.
External links
AI and Sci-Fi: My, Oh, My!: Keynote Address by Robert J. Sawyer 2002
AI and Cinema – Does synthetic insanity rule?