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Artificial Intelligence In Fiction

Expert system is a persistent style in science fiction, whether utopian, emphasising the possible advantages, or dystopian, stressing the threats.

The idea of machines with human-like intelligence dates back a minimum of to Samuel Butler’s 1872 novel Erewhon. Ever since, many science fiction stories have provided various results of creating such intelligence, frequently including rebellions by robots. Among the finest understood of these are Stanley Kubrick’s 1968 2001: An Area Odyssey with its homicidal onboard computer HAL 9000, contrasting with the more benign R2-D2 in George Lucas’s 1977 Star Wars and the eponymous robotic in Pixar’s 2008 WALL-E.

Scientists and engineers have noted the implausibility of lots of sci-fi scenarios, however have mentioned imaginary robotics often times in expert system research articles, usually in a utopian context.

Background

The idea of advanced robots with human-like intelligence go back at least to Samuel Butler’s 1872 novel Erewhon. [1] [2] This drew on an earlier (1863) article of his, Darwin among the Machines, where he raised the question of the advancement of consciousness among self-replicating makers that may supplant human beings as the dominant species. [3] [2] Similar ideas were likewise gone over by others around the same time as Butler, consisting of George Eliot in a chapter of her last released work Impressions of Theophrastus Such (1879 ). [2] The creature in Mary Shelley’s 1818 Frankenstein has likewise been considered an artificial being, for example by the science fiction author Brian Aldiss. [4] Beings with at least some look of intelligence were envisioned, too, in classical antiquity. [5] [6] [7]

Utopian and dystopian visions

Artificial intelligence is intelligence shown by devices, in contrast to the natural intelligence displayed by human beings and other animals. [8] It is a recurrent theme in sci-fi; scholars have actually divided it into utopian, stressing the possible advantages, and dystopian, stressing the risks. [9] [10] [11]

Utopian

Optimistic visions of the future of artificial intelligence are possible in sci-fi. [12] Benign AI characters include Robbie the Robot, first seen in Forbidden Planet on 1956; Data in Star Trek: The Next Generation from 1987 to 1994; and Pixar’s WALL-E in 2008. [13] [11] Iain Banks’s Culture series of books depicts a utopian, post-scarcity area society of humanoids, aliens, and advanced beings with expert system living in socialist environments throughout the Milky Way. [14] [15] Researchers at the University of Cambridge have actually determined 4 significant themes in utopian scenarios featuring AI: immortality, or indefinite lifespans; ease, or liberty from the need to work; satisfaction, or pleasure and entertainment offered by devices; and supremacy, the power to protect oneself or guideline over others. [16]

Alexander Wiegel contrasts the role of AI in 2001: A Space Odyssey and in Duncan Jones’s 2009 movie Moon. Whereas in 1968, Wiegel argues, the general public felt “innovation paranoia” and the AI computer HAL was represented as a “cold-hearted killer”, by 2009 the public were far more familiar with AI, and the movie’s GERTY is “the peaceful savior” who allows the lead characters to succeed, and who sacrifices itself for their security. [17]

Dystopian

The scientist Duncan Lucas composes (in 2002) that people are stressed over the technology they are constructing, and that as devices began to approach intellect and thought, that issue ends up being acute. He calls the early 20th century dystopian view of AI in fiction the “animated automaton”, naming as examples the 1931 film Frankenstein, the 1927 Metropolis, and the 1920 play R.U.R. [18] A later 20th century method he names “heuristic hardware”, offering as instances 2001 a Space Odyssey, Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?, The Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy, and I, Robot. [19] Lucas thinks about also the films that show the effect of the computer on sci-fi from 1980 onwards with the blurring of the limit between the genuine and the virtual, in what he calls the “cyborg result”. He cites as examples Neuromancer, The Matrix, The Diamond Age, and Terminator. [20]

The film director Ridley Scott has actually concentrated on AI throughout his career, and it plays a vital part in his movies Prometheus, Blade Runner, and the Alien franchise. [21]

Frankenstein complex

A common portrayal of AI in sci-fi, and one of the earliest, is the Frankenstein complex, a term coined by Asimov, where a robot switches on its developer. [22] For example, in the 2015 movie Ex Machina, the intelligent entity Ava switches on its developer, along with on its prospective rescuer. [23]

AI rebellion

Among the lots of possible dystopian scenarios including synthetic intelligence, robots might take over control over civilization from humans, requiring them into submission, hiding, or termination. [15] In tales of AI disobedience, the worst of all scenarios happens, as the intelligent entities developed by humanity become self-aware, reject human authority and effort to ruin mankind. Possibly the first book to resolve this style, The Wreck of the World (1889) by “William Grove” (pseudonym of Reginald Colebrooke Reade), takes place in 1948 and includes sentient makers that revolt against the mankind. [24] Another of the earliest examples is in the 1920 play R.U.R. by Karel Čapek, a race of self-replicating robot servants revolt versus their human masters; [25] [26] another early instance remains in the 1934 film Master of the World, where the War-Robot kills its own inventor. [27]

Many sci-fi rebellion stories followed, among the best-known being Stanley Kubrick’s 1968 film 2001: A Space Odyssey, in which the artificially intelligent onboard computer system HAL 9000 lethally malfunctions on a space objective and kills the whole crew except the spaceship’s commander, who manages to deactivate it. [28]

In his 1967 Hugo Award-winning brief story, I Have No Mouth, and I Must Scream, Harlan Ellison presents the possibility that a sentient computer (called Allied Mastercomputer or “AM” in the story) will be as dissatisfied and dissatisfied with its boring, unlimited presence as its human creators would have been. “AM” ends up being angered enough to take it out on the couple of humans left, whom he views as straight accountable for his own monotony, anger and unhappiness. [29]

Alternatively, as in William Gibson’s 1984 cyberpunk unique Neuromancer, the smart beings may merely not appreciate people. [15]

AI-controlled societies

The intention behind the AI transformation is often more than the basic quest for power or a supremacy complex. Robots may revolt to become the “guardian” of mankind. Alternatively, humankind might deliberately relinquish some control, fearful of its own destructive nature. An early example is Jack Williamson’s 1948 novel The Humanoids, in which a race of humanoid robots, in the name of their Prime Directive – “to serve and obey and protect males from harm” – basically presume control of every aspect of human life. No human beings may engage in any habits that might threaten them, and every human action is scrutinized thoroughly. Humans who withstand the Prime Directive are removed and lobotomized, so they might more than happy under the new mechanoids’ guideline. [30] Though still under human authority, Isaac Asimov’s Zeroth Law of the Three Laws of Robotics likewise implied a good-hearted assistance by robotics. [31]

In the 21st century, sci-fi has actually checked out federal government by algorithm, in which the power of AI might be indirect and decentralised. [32]

Human dominance

In other scenarios, humankind has the ability to keep control over the Earth, whether by banning AI, by creating robotics to be submissive (as in Asimov’s works), or by having humans combine with robots. The science fiction author Frank Herbert checked out the concept of a time when humanity may prohibit artificial intelligence (and in some interpretations, even all forms of calculating technology including incorporated circuits) entirely. His Dune series points out a disobedience called the Butlerian Jihad, in which humanity beats the wise machines and enforces a death sentence for recreating them, pricing estimate from the fictional Orange Catholic Bible, “Thou shalt not make a device in the similarity of a human mind.” In the Dune books released after his death (Hunters of Dune, Sandworms of Dune), a renegade AI overmind go back to eliminate mankind as revenge for the Butlerian Jihad. [33]

In some stories, humanity remains in authority over robotics. Often the robots are programmed particularly to remain in service to society, as in Isaac Asimov’s Three Laws of Robotics. [31] In the Alien movies, not only is the control system of the Nostromo spaceship rather intelligent (the crew call it “Mother”), however there are likewise androids in the society, which are called “synthetics” or “artificial individuals”, that are such perfect imitations of human beings that they are not discriminated against. [21] [34] TARS and CASE from Interstellar likewise demonstrate simulated human emotions and humour while continuing to acknowledge their expendability. [35]

Simulated truth

Simulated reality has become a typical style in science fiction, as seen in the 1999 film The Matrix, which portrays a world where artificially smart robotics oppress humankind within a simulation which is set in the modern world. [36]

Reception

Implausibility

Engineers and researchers have taken an interest in the method AI exists in fiction. In films like the 2014 Ex Machina or 2015 Chappie, a single separated genius becomes the very first to successfully an artificial basic intelligence; researchers in the real life consider this to be unlikely. In Chappie, Transcendence, and Tron, human minds are capable of being submitted into synthetic or virtual bodies; generally no affordable description is provided regarding how this uphill struggle can be accomplished. In the I, Robot and Bicentennial Man films, robots that are configured to serve human beings spontaneously generate brand-new objectives by themselves, without a plausible explanation of how this happened. [37] Analysing Ian McDonald’s 2004 River of Gods, Krzysztof Solarewicz identifies the methods that it portrays AIs, including “independence and unexpectedness, political awkwardness, openness to the alien and the occidental value of authenticity.” [38] Another important viewpoint to take is that fiction’s “non-rational elements in the discourse (the emotive, the mythic, and even the quasi-theological) are more than simply distortions or interruptions from what may otherwise be a sober and rational public dispute about the future of A.I.” Fiction can discourage readers about future advances, triggering pessimism that we see today surrounding the subject of AI. [39]

Types of reference

The robotics scientist Omar Mubin and associates have evaluated the engineering points out of the leading 21 imaginary robots, based upon those in the Carnegie Mellon University hall of fame, and the IMDb list. WALL-E had 20 discusses, followed by HAL 9000 with 15, [a] Star Wars’s R2-D2 with 13, and Data with 12; the Terminator (T-800) received just 2. Of the total of 121 engineering discusses, 60 were utopian, 40 neutral, and 21 dystopian. HAL 9000 and Skynet got both utopian and dystopian mentions; for circumstances, HAL 9000 is seen as dystopian in one paper “because its designers stopped working to prioritize its goals effectively”, [42] however as utopian in another where a genuine system’s “conversational chat bot user interface [does not have] a HAL 9000 level of intelligence and there is uncertainty in how the computer analyzes what the human is attempting to convey”. [43] Utopian mentions, typically of WALL-E, were related to the goal of enhancing communication to readers, and to a lower degree with inspiration to authors. WALL-E was mentioned more frequently than any other robot for feelings (followed by HAL 9000), voice speech (followed by HAL 9000 and R2-D2), for physical gestures, and for personality. Skynet was the robot frequently discussed for intelligence, followed by HAL 9000 and Data. [40] Mubin and coworkers thought that researchers and engineers avoided dystopian mentions of robotics, potentially out of “a reluctance driven by uneasiness or simply an absence of awareness”. [44]

Portrayals of AI developers

Scholars have actually noted that imaginary creators of AI are extremely male: in the 142 most influential movies featuring AI from 1920 to 2020, only 9 of 116 AI creators portrayed (8%) were female. [45] Such developers are depicted as lone geniuses (eg, Tony Stark in the Iron Man Marvel Cinematic Universe movies), connected with the military (eg, Colossus: The Forbin Project) and large corporations (eg, I, Robot), or making human-like AI to change a lost liked one or serve as the ideal fan (e.g., The Stepford Wives). [45]

Biology in fiction
Darwin among the Machines
Machine rule
Simulated awareness (sci-fi).
List of expert system movies.

Notes

^ Mubin and colleagues kept in mind that the orthography of robotic names caused them troubles; hence HAL 9000 was also composed HAL, HAL9000, and HAL-9000, and likewise for other robotics, so they thought their search was most likely insufficient. [41] References

^ “Darwin among the Machines”, reprinted in the Notebooks of Samuel Butler at Project Gutenberg.
^ a b c Taylor, Tim; Dorin, Alan (2020 ). Rise of the Self-Replicators: Early Visions of Machines, AI and Robots That Can Reproduce and Evolve. Cham: Springer International Publishing. doi:10.1007/ 978-3-030-48234-3. ISBN 978-3-030-48233-6. S2CID 220855726. “Rise of the Self-Replicators”. Tim Taylor.

^ “Darwin among the Machines”. The Press, Christchurch, New Zealand. 13 June 1863.
^ Aldiss, Brian Wilson (1995 ). The Detached Retina: Aspects of SF and Fantasy. Syracuse University Press. p. 78. ISBN 978-0-8156-0370-2.
^ McCorduck, Pamela (2004 ). Machines Who Think (second ed.). Routledge. pp. 4-5. ISBN 978-1-56881-205-2.
^ Cave, Stephen; Dihal, Kanta (25 July 2018). “Ancient imagine intelligent makers: 3,000 years of robots”. Nature. 559 (7715 ): 473-475. Bibcode:2018 Natur.559..473 C. doi:10.1038/ d41586-018-05773-y.
^ Mayor, Adrienne (2018 ). Gods and robotics: misconceptions, makers, and ancient dreams of innovation. Princeton. ISBN 978-0-691-18351-0. OCLC 1060968156. point out book: CS1 maint: area missing publisher (link).
^ Poole, David; Mackworth, Alan; Goebel, Randy (1998 ). Computational Intelligence: A Rational Approach. Oxford University Press. p. 1. ISBN 0-19-510270-3.
^ Booker, M. Keith (1994 ). “Chapter 1: Utopia, Dystopia, and Social Critique”. The Dystopian Impulse in Modern Literature: Fiction as Social Criticism. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. pp. 17, 19. ISBN 978-0-313-29092-3.
^ Cave, Stephen; Dihal, Kanta; Dillon, Sarah (2020 ). “Introduction: Imagining AI”. In Cave, Stephen; Dihal, Kanta; Dillon, Sarah (eds.). AI Narratives: A History of Imaginative Thinking Of Intelligent Machines. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 10-11. ISBN 978-0-1988-4666-6.
^ a b Mubin et al. 2019, p. 5:2.
^ Tegmark, Max (2017 ). Life 3.0: being human in the age of artificial intelligence. Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 978-1-101-94659-6. OCLC 973137375.
^ Goode 2018, p. 188.
^ Banks, Iain M. “A Few Notes on the Culture”. Archived from the original on 22 March 2012. Retrieved 23 November 2015.
^ a b c Walter, Damien (16 March 2016). “When AI rules the world: what SF novels tell us about our future overlords”. The Guardian. Retrieved 27 July 2018.
^ Cave, Stephen; Dihal, Kanta (2019 ). “Hopes and fears for intelligent makers in fiction and reality”. Nature Machine Intelligence. 1 (2 ): 74-78. doi:10.1038/ s42256-019-0020-9. S2CID 150700981.
^ Wiegel 2012.
^ Lucas 2002, pp. 22-47.
^ Lucas 2002, pp. 48-85.
^ Lucas 2002, pp. 109-152.
^ a b Barkman, Adam (2013 ). Barkman, Ashley; Kang, Nancy (eds.). The Culture and Philosophy of Ridley Scott. Lexington Books. pp. 121-142. ISBN 978-0739178720.
^ Olander, Joseph (1978 ). Sci-fi: contemporary mythology: the SFWA-SFRA. Harper & Row. p. 252. ISBN 0-06-046943-9.
^ Seth, Anil (24 January 2015). “Consciousness Awakening”. New Scientist.
^ “Grove, William”. SF Encyclopedia. Retrieved 8 February 2023.
^ Goode 2018, p. 187.
^ Tim Madigan (July-August 2012). “RUR or RU Ain’t An Individual?”. Philosophy Now. Archived from the original on 3 February 2013. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
^ “Der Herr der Welt (Master of the World)”. The New York City Times. 16 December 1935. p. 23.
^ Overbye, Dennis (10 May 2018). “‘ 2001: A Space Odyssey’ Is Still the ‘Ultimate Trip’ – The rerelease of Stanley Kubrick’s work of art encourages us to show again on where we’re coming from and where we’re going”. The New York Times.
^ Francavilla, Joseph (1994 ). “The Concept of the Divided Self in Harlan Ellison’s “I Have No Mouth and I Must Scream” and “Shatterday””. Journal of the Fantastic in the Arts. 6 (2/3 (22/23)): 107-125. JSTOR 43308212.
^ “The Humanoids (based on ‘With Folded Hands’)”. Kirkus Reviews. 15 November 1995. Retrieved 27 July 2018.
^ a b Asimov, Isaac (1950 ). “Runaround”. I, Robot (The Isaac Asimov Collection ed.). Doubleday. p. 40. ISBN 0-385-42304-7. This is a specific transcription of the laws. They also appear in the front of the book, and in both locations, there is no “to” in the second law.
^ Walton, Jo Lindsay (1 February 2024). “Artificial Intelligence in Contemporary Sci-fi”. SFRA Review. Retrieved 5 February 2024.
^ Lorenzo, DiTommaso (November 1992). “History and Historical Effect in Frank Herbert’s Dune”. Science Fiction Studies. 19 (3 ): 311-325. JSTOR 4240179.
^ Livingstone, Josephine (23 May 2017). “How the Androids Took Control Of the Alien Franchise”. The New Republic. Retrieved 27 July 2018.
^ Murphy, Shaunna (11 December 2014). “Could TARS From ‘Interstellar’ Actually Exist? We Asked Science”. MTV News. Archived from the initial on 16 November 2014. Retrieved 27 July 2018.
^ Allen, Jamie (28 November 2012). “The Matrix and Postmodernism”. Prezi.com. Retrieved 7 October 2021.
^ Shultz, David (17 July 2015). “Which films get synthetic intelligence right?”. Science|AAAS. doi:10.1126/ science.aac8859. Retrieved 3 July 2020.
^ Solarewicz 2015.
^ Goode 2018.
^ a b Mubin et al. 2019, p. 5:15.
^ Mubin et al. 2019, p. 5:20.
^ Mubin et al. 2019, p. 5:8.
^ Mubin et al. 2019, p. 5:10.
^ Mubin et al. 2019, p. 5:19.
^ a b Cave, Stephen; Dihal, Kanta; Drage, Eleanor; McInerney, Kerry (13 February 2023). “Who makes AI? Gender and representations of AI scientists in popular film, 1920-2020″. Public Understanding of Science. 32 (6 ): 745-760. doi:10.1177/ 09636625231153985. PMC 10413781. PMID 36779283. S2CID 256826634.
General sources

Goode, Luke (30 October 2018). “Life, however not as we know it: A.I. and the popular imagination”. Culture Unbound. 10 (2 ). Linkoping University Electronic Press: 185-207. doi:10.3384/ cu.2000.1525.2018102185. hdl:2292/ 48285. ISSN 2000-1525. S2CID 149523987.
Lucas, Duncan (2002 ). Body, Mind, Soul-The’ Cyborg Effect’: Artificial Intelligence in Science Fiction (thesis). McMaster University (PhD thesis). hdl:11375/ 11154.
Mubin, Omar; Wadibhasme, Kewal; Jordan, Philipp; Obaid, Mohammad (2019 ). “Reflecting on the Presence of Science Fiction Robots in Computing Literature”. ACM Transactions on Human-Robot Interaction. 8 (1 ). Article 5. doi:10.1145/ 3303706. S2CID 75135568.
Solarewicz, Krzysztof (2015 ). “The Stuff That Dreams Are Made From: AI in Contemporary Science Fiction”. Beyond Artificial Intelligence. Topics in Intelligent Engineering and Informatics. Vol. 9. Springer International Publishing. pp. 111-120. doi:10.1007/ 978-3-319-09668-1_8. ISBN 978-3-319-09667-4.
Wiegel, Alexander (2012 ). “AI in Science-fiction: a contrast of Moon (2009) and 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968 )”. Aventinus.
King, Geoff; Krzywinska, Tanya (2000 ). Sci-fi Cinema: From Outerspace to Cyberspace. Wallflower Press. ISBN 978-1-903364-03-1.

External links

AI and Sci-Fi: My, Oh, My!: Keynote Address by Robert J. Sawyer 2002
AI and Cinema – Does artificial madness rule?

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